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The Apollo space missions of the 1960s, which took humans to the Moon for the first time, relied on brute‑force propulsion more than technological sophistication.
The onboard Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), while groundbreaking in its day, operated at just 2.048 MHz and had roughly 74 KB of total memory — numbers that seem almost unimaginable by today’s standards. You would need the combined memory of dozens of AGCs to store just one 2 MB photo taken by a modern smartphone.
The Artemis systems that will shepherd astronauts back to the Moon for the first time in half a century — and eventually to Mars — are millions of times more powerful than Apollo’s systems. In fact, nearly every major function in Orion, the primary spacecraft of the Artemis missions, is computer-driven.
This cosmic leap in technological capability underscores a defining truth: Modern space exploration is driven as much by processors as it is by rockets. And it remains the ultimate test of our collective ingenuity.
From rockets to compute: the new frontier
Artemis II was the most recent example of modern mission design — one that prioritizes digital precision.
Today’s spacecraft are intelligent platforms, relying on advanced computing to process real-time data, enable autonomous operations, and safeguard crews in environments where human intervention may be impossible.
Ensuring mission success demands more than just powerful chips. It requires a holistic approach to design and verification, where every layer — from transistor to software to integrated systems — is engineered for flawless operation. This kind of mission-critical engineering exponentially increases the breadth and depth of expertise required across the entire technology stack, including:
- Precisely engineered silicon. Chips must withstand extreme radiation and temperature swings unique to space’s hostile environment.
- Verified hardware-software co-design. Every system must behave correctly under all possible conditions, with seamless interaction between hardware and code.
- Multiphysics simulation. Engineers must model how components perform across structural, thermal, optical, electromagnetic, acoustic, and aerodynamic environments.
- System integration and verification. Thousands of components from diverse suppliers must be validated to work together, with zero margin for error.
This is why advanced electronic design automation (EDA), IP, simulation, and analysis capabilities have become essential for NASA and the broader space community. These tools help ensure that every element — from foundational silicon to fully integrated systems — meets the rigorous standards of reliability, performance, and safety required for successful space missions.
Silicon to systems: managing complexity beyond Earth
As space exploration has shifted from the Apollo era’s limited onboard computing to today’s highly digital Artemis architecture, the challenge has expanded far beyond designing individual components. Modern missions rely on a tightly coordinated ecosystem — from the Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System (SLS) to the ground systems that support them — developed by different teams, suppliers, and disciplines.
Silicon is foundational, but it’s part of a much larger puzzle. What truly matters is how that silicon fits into the broader mission architecture. Every chip, board, subsystem, and interface must work together as part of a coherent whole, enabling the spacecraft to operate as a unified system even as it endures the extreme demands of space.
This “silicon to systems” perspective recognizes that no technology stands alone. The reliability of a processor affects avionics responsiveness; power management silicon influences life support stability; communication hardware determines how data moves across the mission.
When all these relationships compound across thousands of mission-critical components, managing complexity becomes as essential as mastering the laws of physics.
Simulation: preparing for the unknown
One of the greatest challenges in space exploration is preparing for environments and scenarios that can’t be recreated on Earth. Temperatures swing from blistering heat to freezing cold. Radiation levels are extreme. Microgravity affects everything from fluid dynamics to human physiology.
How do we design and test for the unknown?
The answer lies in simulation. By creating virtual representations of spacecraft, components, and even entire missions, we can predict how systems will behave in the harsh realities of space. Digital modeling and simulation allow us to peer into the future of system performance with defined operating conditions.
- Before the Ingenuity helicopter took its maiden flight on Mars in 2021, its design was validated through rigorous simulation testing using physics to replicate Mars’ radically different atmosphere.
- Before launching the DART planetary defense mission, engineers carefully plotted a seven-million-mile trajectory via simulation. Digitally engineered mission planning enabled teams to evaluate scenarios and visualize the spacecraft's relevant vectors, attitude, and maneuvers, including thruster pulses used to precisely target the asteroid system.
- When the James Webb Telescope launched, mission teams had identified 344 potential points of failure, any one of which could have risked $10 billion of exquisitely engineered hardware. None of them came to pass, thanks in part to predictive insights generated by simulation.
As with these triumphant successes, simulation and analysis will remain mission-critical for the Artemis program and humanity’s desire to further explore the cosmos.
To the Moon and beyond
Artemis II reminded us how far we've come as we seek to return to where we've been. It's about each generation being able to dream bigger thanks to the technological leaps accomplished by our predecessors.
The future of space exploration will be shaped by those who master complexity, embrace collaboration, and harness the power of silicon-to-systems design. More than brute-force propulsion, engineering excellence will carry us to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
An edited version of this article originally appeared in Forbes Technology Council
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